CULTURAL TOURISM IN GREECE
Author: Aikaterini-Sotiria Argirioy
Tourism is travel for pleasure, and the commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel (Oxford University Press). The World Tourism Organization defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes" (UNWTO 1995). Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments (UNWTO 2009, UNWTO 2010).
1.1 The concept of Tourism
Tourism is one of the important social and economic fields of our time, which is subjected to objective laws of social development. This is the most dynamic sector of services. Services have been the fastest growing economic sector of industrialized countries over the past several years. Need to rest is stimulated by urbanization, scientific and technological revolution, improving living standards.In some countries, tourism has become a significant source of income belonging to the state and a promising sector of the national economy. It is a priority direction of formation gross domestic product, employment, source of foreign exchange, enhances trade balance and generally it has impact on businesses and society changes. It helps activate and stimulate the network of national economy: building industry, trade and agriculture, increase the production of goods, transport and communications industries, formation of modern human resources policy.
Tourism is a multifaceted phenomenon of social life. On the one hand, it is the powerful and dynamic industry in the international economics, and, on the other hand, it is the extensive social system, which provides the ability to create new job opportunities.Using the positive sides of tourism, the socio-economic goals can be achieved with the high extent. There are many articles and books written by scientists, but in spite of them, it requires a scientific reflection. The technological revolution has contributed to the rapid accumulation of funds that could be spent on entertainment. That is why, tourism becomes increasingly significant for people and holds an important position in the national economy (Theobald 2005).
Tourism is distinctly a twentieth century phenomenon. Historians suggest that the advent of mass tourism began in England during the industrial revolution with the rise of the middle class and relatively inexpensive transportation. The creation of the commercial airline industry following the Second World War and the subsequent development of the jet aircraft in the 1950s signaled the rapid growth and expansion of international travel. This growth led to the development of a major new industry, tourism. In turn, international tourism became the concern of a number of world governments since it not only provided new employment opportunities, but it also produced a means of earning foreign currency. Tourism today has grown significantly in both economic and social importance (Plange 1989).
Tourism can be viewed from three positions: economic, technical and holistic.To determine tourism from the economic position, as was noted by Australian Department of Tourism in 1975, we must establish its economic and business consequences as nationally important industry. This area involves a wide cross section of component activities including the provision of transportation, accommodation, recreation, food, and related services (Australian Department of Tourism and Recreation 1975).
McIntosh wrote in 1977, that tourism can be defined as the science, art and business of attracting and transporting visitors, accommodating them and graciously catering to their needs and wants (Mclntosh R. W. 1977). The human factor is the basis of tourism. That is why it cannot be consider from only economic side. Individual is an effective subject of tourism, who makes a decision about trip. Another component is space; there is a physical place, where a tourist will be. The last element is travel time, which acts as a temporary item and is consumed during the trip and staying. The technical definition is necessary in order to control the number of tourist arrivals for the compilation of statistical reporting. This requires to distinguish a tourist from other travelers. If we compile all the definitions that exist, we can see that the basis of any of them has three elements: the purpose of travel, distance and duration.
The purpose of tourist travel can be attributed to one of the following options: –Free time (vacation, holiday, health, research, religion and sport); –Business travel, family, transmissions, meetings, tours. British scientists Burkart and Medlik have noted the confusion, which arises from this: ‘In endeavoring to define tourism it is useful to distinguish between the concept and the technical definit ions. The concept provides a notional, theoretical framework, which identifies the essent ial characteristics, and which distinguishes tourism from similar, often related, but different phenomena. Technical definitions provide instruments for particular statistical, legislative, and industrial purposes’. Various technical definitions provide a general concept that is applied at the international and domestic settings. Another direction to define tourism is holistic approach. In accordance of this concept it requires to be defined as a whole view, which will cover the entire essence of the subject of tourism. Two Swiss scientists, Hunziker and Kraph, defined tourism as ‘the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected to any earning activity’ (Burkart, Medlik 1974).
This definition has been recognized by international organizations, but the proposed approach is vague, because it points to the relationship with other disciplines. Tourism is inconceivable without anthropology factor-man, which is the principal element of it. Another nearest science is psychology. Questions about visitors’ needs and wants are very popular, because tourism includes travel agencies, hotels, transportation and promotion. Sociologists and cultural anthropologists study the travel behaviour of individuals and groups of people, and focus on the customs, habits, traditions and life-styles of both hosts and guests.
Mix of politics, ideologies and economic principles are the main in tourism development as a legitimate and economically important industry. Touristic activity has in common with such sciences as geology, history, biology, ecology, which also participate in setting up tourist potential of a given region. Finally, natural factors like: topography, climate, hydrography, lithological, biogeographical elements participate in establishing of the tourism fund, respectively of recreational resources, that affect the activity of tourism phenomenon.
Geographers are concerned with such aspects of tourism, as study travel flows and locations, development dispersion, land use and changes in the physical environment. Gunn summarized all definition and presented a model: ‘the designer has an opportunity for a closed system of tourism environment made up of the five components: people ...in a market area with desire and ability to participate; attractions ...offer activities for user participation; services and facilities ...for users/support the activities; transportation ...moves people to and from the attraction destinations; and information and direction ...assists users in knowing, finding, enjoying’ (Gunn 1972). All sciences, when define this term concern influences on economy or society. In addition, tourism has been variously defined (or refined) by governments and academics to relate to such fields as economics, sociology, cultural anthropology and geography. Economists are concerned with tourism’s contributions to the economy and economic development of a destination area, and focus on supply/demand, foreign exchange and balance of payments, employment and other monetary factors. Mathieson and Wall conclude that ‘Tourism is the temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations, and the facilities created to cater to their needs’ (Mathieson, Geoffrey 1982).
Positive impacts from tourism on society increase national consciousness, exchanging of ideas, contribute interfacing, solidarity, community wellness, understanding other cultures, raising the demand for historical monuments. Tourism is one of the t ypes of social activity that has economic impact. The growth of tourism infrastructure represents improvement in a wide range of spheres such as transportation (traffic), food and drinking industries, airline companies, shipping companies, new travel agencies, travel insurance, recreational, cultural and sporting services, amusement, entertainment and souvenirs. There are set up new businesses which provide new services, where additional workers are required. All these changes raise the income from taxation and reduce the unemployment. The destruction of these consequences contributes the growth of the economy (Chiosova 2015).
All definitions of the term “tourism” include not only individual, particular person, who wants to travel, but a specific process, in which more and more people are involved. Covering the whole range of disciplines, tourism requires new updated research.In the article are definedthree approaches to the term of tourism: economic, technical and holistic. From holistic side they define this industry as a whole view, which will look into the entire essence of the subject of tourism. Considerable attention is given to the economic impacts that influence the sustainable national economy. The development of the tourism industry positively is reflected in the balance of payments. With the growth of employment in this sector, incomes to the government budget are increased. Tourism contributes to economic diversification, creating new industries that it serves. The sum of all definitions shows, that tourismin its definition includes people, attractions, services and facilit ies, transportation, informat ion and direct ion. Tourism is a complex endeavor. It not only provides huge amounts of money to protect the natural environment, restore cultural monuments, and preserve native cultures. We start to understand people with very different backgrounds. Tourism provides a break from the stress of an everyday routine and fulfills the dreams of leisure travellers. This industry includes gross output, added value, capital investment, employment, and tax contribution that help to achieve the growth of economy (Chiosova 2015).
1.2 Defining Cultural Tourism
Tourism has a vital role in development of different destinations all around the world. Accordingly, culture is assumed as one of the primary beneficiaries and is regarded as a key asset in tourism development by promoting both tangible (i.e. cultural attractions, like museums and heritage centers, natural assets like beach, sun and mountain) and intangible (i.e. promoting gastronomy cultural events and festivals and selling “atmosphere”) elements (Mousavi, Doratli, Mousavi, Moradiahari 2016).
In order to clearly define the concept of cultural tourism it is first necessary to have a basic understanding of the two complex definitions of culture and tourism. However, it should be noted that recognizing the two concepts of culture and tourism separately is considered as a prerequisite for defining cultural tourism. The definition of cultural tourism itself is quite different and should not be assumed as a combination of the meanings of these two terms, culture and tourism. Comparing to the broad concept of culture, tourism is perhaps an easier term to deal with.
The known definitions of tourism is divided into two categorizes; the conceptual definition of tourism, dealing with the core meaning of tourism, and the technical definition of tourism, focused on evaluating and measuring the value of tourism which is particularly variable in different countries. Culture is a very complex concept; hundreds of definitions for it are in literatures. Generally, culture is viewed as a complex whole, which delivers a unifying concept for the extensively varied ways of life. Tourism, accompanied by other social mechanism, may act as a catalyst to transform culture as process into culture as product, thus isolating and detaching cultural products from their initial social context. The main usage of the term cultural tourism involves the consumption of a wide range of cultural manifestations like heritage, art, folklore and etc. by tourists (Mousavi, Doratli, Mousavi, Moradiahari 2016).
Cultural tourism can be generally seen as a sociocultural relationship between people which is promoted, moderated and mediated by a range of various actors including, planners, politicians, researchers, marketing professionals, travel agencies and so on. Cultural tourism can be regarded as a meeting between social systems and cultures which will produce changes in both of them (Smith 1992). As a social practice, cultural tourism reconstructs or constructs identities (e.g. nationalism, social identities, and transnationalism) and will eventually contribute to globalization and framing a globalized world. (Bauman 1999). Bonink (1992) identifies two approaches regarding the definition of cultural tourism; the sites and monuments approach, focusing on explaining the type of attractions visited by cultural tourists, which mainly describes culture as a product (Richards 1996).
This quantitative approach simply assumes cultural tourism as a consumer of cultural attractions and proposes a relatively limited view of the motivations and activities of cultural tourists, thus restricting its analysis to specific attractions and sites. For instance, site and monument approach of cultural tourism, typically, consider the following attractions and sites as intangible and tangible expressions of culture which attracts cultural tourists.
- Archaeological sites and museums.
- Architecture (ruins, famous buildings, whole towns).
- Art, sculpture, crafts, galleries, festivals, events.
- Music and dance (classical, folk, contemporary).
- Drama (theatre, films, dramatists).
- Language and literature study, tours, events.
- Religious festivals, pilgrimages.
- Complete (folk or primitive) cultures and subculture (Mousavi, Doratli, Mousavi, Moradiahari 2016).
The second approach, called the conceptual approach, attempts to define cultural tourism in a more qualitative way through analyzing the practices, experiences and meanings of cultural tourist in contact with other places and cultures. As Richards (1996) describes, as with tourism in general, conceptual definitions of cultural tourism attempt to describe the motive and meanings attached to cultural tourism activity. For example, McIntosh and Goeldner (1986) define cultural tourism including all aspects of travel, whereby travelers become familiar with the heritage and history of others or their contemporary ways of life or thought". In other words, the processes and products of other cultures are what cultural tourism offer to cultural tourists.
Furthermore, Pereiro, (2002) argues that from this standpoint, cultural tourism can be defined in a different way, as a process of commodification, a nostalgia for heritage and the past, a psychological experience, process of learning and curiosity, a modern form of pilgrimage, as an industry which represents cultural values and as a specific way of cultural consumption. Further study on the conceptual definition of cultural tourism suggests this approach stimulated a move away from culture as product to culture as process or “way of life” definitions of culture which is visible in the growing interest of tourists in experiencing lifestyle, customs and everyday life of people in different destinations. In other words, the previous preoccupation of tourism with natural resources and landscapes seems to be more involved in sensory and symbolic consumption of the ideas and images associated with particular destinations (OECD 2009).
This expanding and diverse pattern of cultural consumption for tourists primarily dealing with intangible elements make defining the concept of culturally motivated and also cultural tourism even more difficult. One of the most important components of cultural tourism and tourism in general is the issue of identity. Particularly in recent years, the struggle for creating and meditating the identity has become an inseparable feature of cultural tourism. In other words, identity is assumed as a primary value both for cultural tourists and their hosts, the hosts want to promote a unique identity for their communities to lure visitors thus bringing the associated benefits of tourism, on the other hand this unique local identity will satisfy the thirst of cultural consumption and help distinguish the cultural tourist. According to Richards and Pereiro (2006) the factors responsible for emergence of identity as a key element in cultural tourism are;
- The need for regions to distinguish themselves.
- The search for new forms of community.
- The need to valorize culture.
- The shift towards experiential tourism.
- Postmodern/postcolonial reification of identity.
Identity itself can be described as a process of social construction of meanings that utilizes cultural attributes‟ which occurs in the context of power relations (Richards 2006). In order to clearly understand the emerging role of identity in cultural tourism, it is noteworthy to briefly describe three basic types of identity distinguished by Manuel Castells (2000).
- Legitimated Identity: Created by dominant institutions to legitimate their power over other social actors.
- Resistant Identity: A claim by social actors in low social positions who are stigmatized by the dominant groups. It is a construction of alternative social principles of organization, it is more communal and represents a defensive identity against exclusion and domination.
- Projectual Identity: Where social actors manipulate their cultural materials and construct a new identity that redefines their position in society and transforms the social structure.
Cultural tourism can play an important role and contribute to all these three types of identity, for instance, promoting national monuments thus supporting legitimate identity, creating alternative cultural itineraries for resistant identity and of course promoting new images for communities for projectual identity. Therefore, it is obvious that cultural tourism can play a crucial role in construction and reconstruction of identity for the sake of tourism consumption (Mousavi, Doratli, Mousavi, Moradiahari 2016).
In other words, as a mechanism of cultural and social change, tourism has a significant influence on transformation of identity where in some situations cultural tourism may reinforce this identity, in other cases it may add new senses and meanings to peoples and spaces thus altering and transforming identity fundamentally. However, no matter how this process of commodification of culture proceeds, the social costs of it cannot be ignored (Santana 1997).
Furthermore, another factor which reveals the close relationship between identity and cultural tourism is the current issue of globalization along with loosened social ties, decline in traditional family forms and structure and individualism. This emerging situation calls for a redefined symbolic constructions for communities where cultural tourism can acts as an ideological stimulus in order to promote a new image and identity in response to the contemporary social relation thus modifying the borders and boundaries between different human groups both in local and global level (Mousavi, Doratli, Mousavi, Moradiahari 2016).
1.3 Cultural Tourism in Greece
Greece has long been a popular destination for tourists from all over the world, in part due to its ancient cultural history and many archaeological sites, such as those in the capital city of Athens. The country also contains the longest coastline in the Mediterranean region, and its many beach resorts on islands such as Santorini and Mykonos are an important driver of tourism. By far, most of the tourist expenditure in Greece – which has a significant impact on the country’s economy – comes from leisure visitors as opposed to those traveling for business. In 2022, the total contribution of travel and tourism to GDP in Greece was around 38 billion euros. This figure, however, was roughly seven percent lower than in 2019, the year prior to the onset of the coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic. Tourism also boosts employment in the country, with approximately 800 thousand jobs in the Greek travel and tourism industry in 2022 (Statista Research Department 2024).
When the COVID-19 pandemic turned international tourism upside down in 2020, the number of inbound tourists in Greece dropped to under eight million. In 2022, however, international visitors in the country bounced back to nearly 30 million, showing strong signs of recovery but remaining 12 percent short of pre-pandemic levels. Overall, most international travelers came from other European countries, with the United Kingdom and Germany representing the leading inbound travel markets in Greece both before and after the impact of the pandemic. When looking at the most popular destinations for international tourists in Greece, the Southern Aegean region, which includes the islands of Rhodes and Mykonos, attracted the highest number of travelers in 2022. Attica – a region that encompasses the capital city of Athens – Central Macedonia, and Crete followed in the ranking that year (Statista Research Department 2024).
As international tourism in the country rebounded in 2022, also the number of outbound travelers from Greece experienced a sharp annual increase, reaching more than five million. That said, the outbound tourism market recovered at a slower pace than the inbound one, with 35 percent fewer Greek tourists traveling abroad compared to 2019. With the rise in outbound tourists, the outbound travel expenditure in Greece grew by over 800 million euros in 2022 over the previous year but denoted a 30 percent drop from the peak in spending recorded in 2019. On the other hand, the domestic travel expenditure in Greece was four percent higher in 2022 than in 2019, peaking at nearly 11 billion euros (Statista Research Department 2024).
Across Greece, there are monuments, museums, art galleries, festivals and traditional feasts you can visit and experience during your holidays. The UNESCO World Heritage Sites and Monuments are scattered across the country and they are definitely worth a visit. The most famous of the archaeological sites is the Acropolis of Athens, a hilltop citadel with the most iconic ancient Greek monuments, such as the Parthenon, that has become an enduring symbol of Greek civilisation. Ancient Olympia is the site of the original Olympic Games.
Greece is home to numerous museums and art galleries that showcase the best of ancient and modern Greek art & culture. The National Archaeological Museum in Athens is not to be missed as it houses a vast collection of sculptures, pottery, and other artefacts from all over the country. The Athens and Epidaurus Festival welcomes visitors to the country’s ancient theatres and hosts international artists every summer since 1955. The traditional feasts (panigiria) give to the visitor a glimpse of Greek folklore and art; and he will be impressed by the colourful costumes, the jewellery and lively dances performed usually on the occasion of religious local feasts (Greece 2024).
1.4 Religious Tourism
The oldest yet most interesting form of tourism in the history of Mankind is present all over Greece. People would travel to awe-inspiring religious sites throughout the country since antiquity to express their religious sentiments, strengthen their faith and connection to God. Orthodox monuments are harmoniously integrated in untouched nature and are part of Greece’s cultural heritage. Both on the mainland and on the islands, you will come across a large number of Byzantine churches, Christian basilicas, and age-old monasteries promising to travel you back in time. Come and see stunning churches, imposing monasteries and significant religious monuments around Greece. A religious trip offers a journey through a different side of Greece, it is a trip through time, a journey that everyone should undertake at some point of their lifetime.
Churches are generally a place of worship but they are also admired for their glorious architecture and amazing religious art. Their decor -whether it is paintings, templon, mosaics, bells etc - reflect the Orthodox doctrine. From austere, aisle-less chapels to magnificent cross-in-square churches, you will get the chance to see their architectural forms that were gradually established ever since the first centuries of Christianity (Greece 2024).
Conclusions
There is nearly no doubt that culture is a crucial component of tourism product and it may determine the competiveness and effectiveness of tourism destinations. Reviewing the conceptual definition of culture reveals that culture consists of both products (like buildings, customs and arts) and process (like way of life) associated with culture. From this perspective however, cultural tourism is not merely associated with visiting monuments and sites, which is the traditional view of cultural tourism, it also includes consuming the way of life in different destinations. In other words, cultural tourism is not just about consuming cultural products of the past; it also deals with contemporary way of life and culture of people.
Accordingly, this view of cultural tourism, to some extent, moves in harmony with current issue of globalization and the inevitable process of commodification associated with it. It is believed that cultural tourism or tourism in general, plays an important role in diminishing local identity of communities considering the very nature of tourism development dictates that commodities should be presented to tourists in exchange of economic benefits. Furthermore, considering the contemporary pattern of cultural consumption among cultural tourists explained before, this commodification process associated with tourism development does not limit to physical products, but the elements of everyday life of locals as well (Richards 1999).
This issue poses a major challenge in discussing the significance of cultural tourism and its impacts on identity whereas to what extent this process of commodification should continue both for cultural tourist consuming these commodified products and local people selling their identity, exhausting cultural resources and living a life expected from them by tourists (Mousavi, Doratli, Mousavi, Moradiahari 2016).
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